The Role of Laboratory Professionals in Preventing Contamination of Food by Antimicrobial-Resistant Microorganisms (AMRMs)

Oludairo, O.O.; Aiyedun, J. O.; Oludairo, B.B.; Oludairo, M. P.; Fabiyi, F.E.; Imam, A.A.

doi:10.21608/javs.2024.338066.1468

The Role of Laboratory Professionals in Preventing Contamination of Food by Antimicrobial-Resistant Microorganisms (AMRMs)

Document Type : Original Article

Authors

¹ Department of Veterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine, University of Ilorin, Nigeria

² Department of Public Law, University of Ilorin, Nigeria

10.21608/javs.2024.338066.1468

Abstract

Antimicrobial-resistant-microorganism (AMRM)-infected or contaminated food that leads to livestock losses and disease/death in humans is estimated to put 31 million people at risk of food insecurity in Nigeria by the last quarter of 2024. This study aimed to explicate the roles of food-industry stakeholders/laboratorians in preventing food contamination and animal/human infection by AMRMs. The objectives were to determine what food/food system, food security, and stakeholders in the food industry are; investigate the occurrence of AMRM in food; and elucidate preventive measures to be implemented to avoid AMRM in food. A structured questionnaire was administered to stakeholders and baseline information from published literature/established international standards was used to achieve this purpose. The majority (88%) of the respondents were from the Veterinary Teaching Hospital, University of Ilorin; all (100%) participants from the laboratories stated they knew the meaning of food security, while 56% of respondents that were ≤25 years old stated that AMRM could contaminate food. Only 52% of university-educated respondents agreed they were stakeholders in the food industry while 60% were veterinarians/medical practitioners. Reported contamination of food by AMRMs from harvest to consumption, especially in low/middle-income countries (LMICs) like Nigeria was by antimicrobial-resistant Staphylococcus spp., Bacillus spp., Proteus spp., Salmonella spp., and Clostridium spp. This was largely enhanced by the unrestricted use of antimicrobial agents in food animals, especially as growth promoters, leading to the production of unwholesome food, outbreaks of zoonoses, loss of livestock, and human diseases that were foodborne. Compulsory antimicrobial susceptibility tests should be done for isolates from food/food products to determine their suitability for use and the presence of AMRM. The diffusion method of antimicrobial susceptibility testing (AST) should strictly follow the International Standard Organization (ISO) protocol, which includes using pure colonies, overnight culture of 0.5 McFarland turbidity, and interpreting zones of inhibition using the Clinical and Laboratory Standard Institute (CLSI) recommended breakpoints. Only certified safe and wholesome food/food products should be passed to the public for consumption. Universities and researchers should carry out more extension work outside establishments’ walls to disseminate research results in food-AMRM.

Keywords

Main Subjects

public health and preventive medicine

References

AIYEDUN, J. O., OLUDAIRO, O. O., OLORUNSHOLA, I. D., FURO, N. A., OLOWOLENI, F. R., ADAM, M., and SHOYINKA, S.V.O., 2017. Seroepidemiological Survey of Bovine Brucellosis in Selected Fulani Herds in Kwara State, Nigeria. Journal of Advanced Veterinary and Animal Research, 4: 222 - 226. https://banglajol.info/index.php/JAVAR/article/view/33130.

ALEGBELEYE, O., ODEYEMI, O. A., STRATEVA, M., and STRATEV, D., 2022. Microbial spoilage of vegetables, fruits and cereals. Applied Food Research, 2 (1). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.afres.2022.100122

ALMANSOUR, A. M., ALHADLAQ, M. A., ALZAHRANI, K. O., MUKHTAR, L. E., ALHARBI, A. L., and ALAJEL, S. M., 2023. The Silent Threat: Antimicrobial-Resistant Pathogens in Food-Producing Animals and Their Impact on Public Health.Microorganisms,11(9):2127. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms11092127

BEALS, G. 2023. Stakeholders’ Contribution Document United Nations Food Systems Summit +2 Stocktaking Moment “Shadow Report to the UNFSS+2”. Available at: https://www.unfoodsystemshub.org/docs/unfoodsystemslibraries/stocktaking-moment/stakeholders/unfss-2-stakeholder-contribution-report.pdf

BORGHINI, A., and PIRAS, N., 2020. Food and Foods. Toward a Definition. Rivista Italiana di Filosofia del Linguaggio, SFL, 384–392. https://doi.org/10.4396/SFL2019ES06

CHENG, A., 2022. Fight Against Antimicrobial Resistance in Ready-to-eat Food. Food Safety Focus (196th Issue, Article 2. Available online at: https://www.cfs.gov.hk/english/multimedia/multimedia_pub/multimedia_pub_fsf_196_02.html

ERKMEN, O., and BOZOGLU, T. F., 2016. Types of Microorganisms in Foods. In: Food Microbiology: Principles into Practice Microorganisms Related to Foods, Foodborne Diseases, and Food Spoilage. Pp. 35-80. Wiley Online Books, https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119237860.ch3

EFSA (EUROPEAN FOOD SAFETY AUTHORITY), 2023. Call for Expression of Interest for the Position of Members of the Stakeholder Bureau of the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). Engagement and External Relations (ENREL Unit). Available at: https://www.efsa.europa.eu/sites/default/files/2023-02/call-for-renewal-of-the-stakeholder-bureau-members-2023.pdf

FALEKE, O. O., JOLAYEMI, K. O., IGOH, Y. O., JIBRIL, A. H., and AYEDUN, J. O., 2017. Salmonella species on Meat Contact Surfaces and Processing Water in Sokoto Main Market And Abattoir, Nigeria. Macedonian Veterinary Review, 40 (1): 1-7.

FLUIT, A. C. 2005. Towards more virulent and antibiotic-resistant Salmonella? FEMS Immunology and Medical Microbiology, 43, 1–11. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15607630/

FAO (FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS), 2018a. Sustainable food systems Concept and framework. Available at: file:///E:/Abstracts/Food%20security%20and%20AMR/1%20Food/CA2079EN.pdf. Accessed 20th July, 2024.

FAO (FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS), 2006. Food Security. Brief Policy, Issue 2. Available at: https://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/faoitaly/documents/pdf/pdf_Food_Security_Cocept_Note.pdf

FAO (FOODAND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS), 2018b. multi-stakeholder foodborne pathogens. Clinical Infectious Diseases,2005, 41, 1613–1620.

FOUNOU, L. L., FOUNOU, R. C., and ESSACK, S. Y., 2016. Antibiotic Resistance in the Food Chain: A Developing Country-Perspective. Frontiers in Microbiology, 7, 232834. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2016.01881

GHOLAMI-SHABANI, M., SHAMS-GHAHFAROKHI, M., and RAZZAGHI-ABYANEH, M., 2023. Food Microbiology: Application of Microorganisms in Food Industry. IntechOpen. doi: 10.5772/intechopen.109729. https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/86078

GAFIN (GLOBAL ALLIANCE FOR IMPROVED NUTRITION), 2020. Food Safety Stakeholder Mapping Report for Nigeria. A USAID Eat Safe Project Report. Available at: https://www.gainhealth.org/sites/default/files/publications/documents/food-safety-stakeholder-mapping-report-for-nigeria-december-2020.pdf

HOYT, R. E., and LEVINE, M. G., 1947. A Method for determining Sensitivity to Penicillin and Streptomycin. Science (Washington) 1947, 171. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17794155/

JANS, C., SARNO, E., COLLINEAU, L., MEILE, L., STARK, K. D. C., and STEPHAN, R., 2018. Consumer Exposure to Antimicrobial Resistant Bacteria from Food at Swiss Retail Level. Frontiers in Microbiology, 9:362. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.00362. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/microbiology/articles/10.3389/fmicb.2018.00362/full

JESWANI, H. K., FIGUEROA-TORRES, G., and AZAPAGIC, A., 2021. The extent of food waste generation in the UK and its environmental impacts. Sustainable Production and Consumption, 26: 532-547. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352550920314202

KHAN, Z. A., SIDDIQUI, M. F., and PARK, S., 2019. Current and Emerging Methods of Antibiotic Susceptibility Testing. Diagnostics, 9: 49-66.

MOLBAK, K. 2005. Human health consequences of antimicrobial drug-resistant Salmonella and other Partnerships to Finance and Improve Food Security and Nutrition in the Framework of the 2030 Agenda. High-Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition of FAO. Available at: www.fao.org/3/CA0156EN/CA0156en.pdf

MURALI, A.P., TRZASKOWSKA, M., and TRAFIALEK, J., 2023. Microorganisms in Organic Food- Issues to Be Addressed. Microorganisms, 11, 1557.https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms11061557.

NAMBIAR, P., and ASHA, K., 2023. Stakeholders’ Role for Addressing Global Threat of Antimicrobial Resistance: A Multisectoral One Health Approach. In: Mothadaka, M.P., Vaiyapuri, M., Rao Badireddy, M., Nagarajrao Ravishankar, C., Bhatia, R., Jena, J. (eds) Handbook on Antimicrobial Resistance. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9279-7_47

NPA (NATO PARLIAMENTARY ASSEMBLY), 2023. Food Security and Conflict: Harvesting Resilience in the Face of a Global Crisis – Preliminary Draft Special Report (Dzerowicz, J. Special Rapporteur), 016 CDS 23 E. Available at: https://www.nato-pa.int/document/2023-food-security-and-conflict-report-dzerowicz-016-cds

OKANLAWON, S. T., ADEYEMO, S. M., and AGBAJE, I. S., 2023. Isolation and identification of microorganisms associated with Jollof rice sold at Bukateria in Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile -Ife, Osun State, Nigeria. GSC Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 22 (01), 178–185. https://gsconlinepress.com/journals/gscbps/ArchiveIssue-2023-Vol22-Issue1

OLUDAIRO, O. O., BALOGUN, A. K., DAODU, O. B., and AIYEDUN, J. O., 2022. Isolation and Antimicrobial Resistance Phenotype of Salmonella Species from Ready-to-Eat Roasted Meat (Suya) in Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria.Journal of Applied Veterinary Sciences, 7 (4): 67-73. https://www.javs.journals.ekb.eg/article_257555.html

OLUDAIRO, O. O., OLATOYE, O. I., AWONIYI, O. E., ADEJUMOBI, O. A., and AIYEDUN, J. O., 2020. Prevalence of Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in Cattle Milk from dairy Herds in Oyo state, Nigeria. Journal of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, 2 (2); 73-82. https://jvbs.net/volume-2-issue-2/3293-2/

OLUDAIRO, O. O., ZAKARIYA, M. E., AIYEDUN, J. O., DAODU, O. B., OLORUNSHOLA, I. D., and AKPABIO, U., 2023. Prevalence of Salmonella Species in Locally Fermented Milk (Nono) in Gambari Market, Ilorin East Local Government, Kwara State, Nigeria. Zagazig Veterinary Journal, 51(1), 92-100. Available at: https://zvjz.journals.ekb.eg/article_293820.html

POKHAREL, S., SHRESTHA, P., and ADHIKARI, B., 2020. Antimicrobial use in food animals and human health: time to implement ‘One Health’ approach. Antimicrobial Resistance an Infection Control 9, 181 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13756-020-00847-x

RELLER, L. B., WEINSTEIN, M., JORGENSEN, J. H., and FERRARO, M. J., 2009. Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing: A Review of General Principles and Contemporary Practices. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 49, 1749–1755. Available at: https://academic.oup.com/cid/article/49/11/1749/344384

SAMTIYA, M., MATTHEWS, K.R., DHEWA, T., and PUNIYA, A.K., 2022. Antimicrobial Resistance in the Food Chain: Trends, Mechanisms, Pathways, and Possible Regulation Strategies. Foods, 11, 2966. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11192966

SAVITHA, S., CHAKRABORTY, S., and THORAT, B. N., 2022. Microbial Contamination and Decontamination of Onion and its Products. Applied Food Research, 2 (1): https://doi.org/10.1016/j.afres.2021.100032

SMITH, L., BARNETT, Y., LÓPEZ-SÁNCHEZ, G. F., SHIN, J., JACOB, L., BUTLER, L., CAO, C., YANG, L., SCHUCH, F., and TULLY, M., 2022. Food insecurity (hunger) and fast-food consumptionamong 180 164 adolescents aged 12–15 years from sixty-eight countries. British Journal of Nutrition, 127 (3): 470 – 477. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114521001173

THAPA, S. P., SHRESTHA, S., and ANAL, A. K., 2020. Addressing the antibiotic resistance and improving the food safety in food supply chain (farm-to-fork) in Southeast Asia. Food Control, 108, 106809. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2019.106809

THIRY, J. 2021. Engaging with food industry stakeholders – Guiding Principles. Available at: https://www.boreal-is.com/blog/engaging-with-food-industry-stakeholders-guiding-principles/

UNICEF (UNITED NATIONS CHILDREN FUNDS), 2023. 25 million Nigerians at high risk of food insecurity in 2023. Available at: https://www.unicef.org/press-releases/25-million-nigerians-high-risk-food-insecurity-2023. Accessed 21st July, 2024.

UNEP (UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME), 2023. Antimicrobial resistance: a global threat. Available online at: https://www.unep.org/explore-topics/chemicals-waste/what-we-do/emerging-issues/antimicrobial-resistance-global-threat

UNEP-FAO-UNDP (UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME-FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS- UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME), 2023. Rethinking Our Food Systems: A Guide for Multi-Stakeholder Collaboration. Available at: https://www.undp.org/sites/g/files/zskgke326/files/2023-06/rethinking-food-systems_a_guide_for_multi-stakeholder_collaboration.pdf. Accessed 21st July, 2024.

UNN (UNITED NATIONS NEWS), 2022. “World is moving backwards on eliminating hunger and malnutrition, UN report reveals,” 6th July 2022. Available at: https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/blog/2022/07/world-is-moving-backwards-on-eliminating-hunger-and-malnutrition-un-report-reveals/. Accessed July, 21st 2024.

USAID (UNITED STATES AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT), 2023. Agriculture and Food Security. Available at: https://www.usaid.gov/agriculture-and-food-security

VERRAES, C., VAN BOXSTAEL, S., VAN MEERVENNE, E., VAN COILLIE, E., BUTAYE, P., CATRY, B., DE SCHAETZEN, M., VAN HUFFEL, X., IMBERECHTS, H., DIERICK, K., DAUBE, G., SAEGERMAN, C., DE BLOCK, J., DEWULF, J., and HERMAN, L., 2013. Antimicrobial Resistance in the Food Chain: A Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 10, 2643-2669; doi:10.3390/ijerph10072643. https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/10/7/2643.

WEF (WORLD ECONOMIC FORUM), 2023. Food, Nature and Health Transitions − Repeatable Country Models Insight Report, January 2023. Available at: https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Food_Nature_and_Health_Transitions_2023.pdf. Accessed 20^th July 2024.

WHO (WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION), 1961. Standardization of Methods for Conducting Microbic Sensitivity Tests: Second Report of the Expert Committee on Antibiotics [Meeting Held in Geneva from 11 to 16 July 1960]. Geneva, Switzerland, 1961. Available at: https://iris.who.int/handle/10665/40480. Accessed 5th September 2024.

WHO (WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION), 2015. Global Action Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance. Available online at: https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/193736/9789241509763_eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y. Accessed 22nd August 2024.

WHO (WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION), 2021. Antimicrobial Resistance. Available online at: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/antimicrobial-resistance. Accessed 21st August, 2024.

WOAH (WORLD ORGANISATION FOR ANIMAL HEALTH), 2019. Protecting Animals, Preserving Our Future), Terrestrial Animal Health Code. 2019. Available online at: https://rr-africa.oie.int/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/en_csat-vol1-2019.pdf. Accessed on 22nd August 2024.