Review on Subclinical Mastitis in Dairy Camels

Camels play a crucial role as multipurpose animals, providing milk and meat and serving as a means of transportation. They serve as a financial reserve for pastoralists and hold significant cultural and social value. Camel milk, known for its exceptional nutritional properties, is considered a valuable substitute for human milk. However, udder infections, particularly mastitis, pose significant challenges to camel farming. Mastitis, especially the subclinical form, is a persistent and prevalent condition affecting milk hygiene and quality in dairy camels. This review offers insights into the prevalence, risk factors, and bacterial pathogens associated with subclinical mastitis in camels, noting its prevalence ranging from 9.28% to 87.78%. Pathogens identified include Staphylococcus aureus , Coagulase-negative Staphylococcus, Streptococcus agalactiae , Streptococcus dysgalactiae , Escherichia coli , Micrococcus spp., Pasteurella haemolytica , and Corynebacterium spp. The study outlines key risk factors contributing to camel mastitis, emphasizing severe tick infestation, age, lactation stage, parity, body condition score, skin lesions on the teats or udders, anti-suckling devices, udder history, conformation, breed, unhygienic milking practices, and production system, amongst others, that have been reported to be important in the prevalence of subclinical mastitis. The findings underscore the importance of holistic management practices, emphasizing hygiene, health monitoring, and targeted interventions to ensure camel well-being and productivity in various agro-pastoral contexts.


INTRODUCTION
In arid, semiarid, and desert areas, camel (Camelus dromedarius) livestock plays an essential role in the lives of local populations; it provides milk, meat, hair products, transportation, racing, and tourism.Thus, these activities participate in the circular local economy and offer camel herders a fair and stable income (Alary et al., 2021).
Camel milk holds significant dietary importance in the arid and semiarid regions of African and Asian countries.Camel pastoralists favor camel milk over other types of milk because it is highly nutritious, refreshing, easily digestible, and possesses excellent preservability (El-Agamy, 2006).Like other dairy animals, dromedary camels could be affected by mastitis, a complex disease occurring worldwide among dairy animals, with heavy economic losses largely due to mastitis (Matofari et al., 2003).
According to the pathological signs, the inflammatory reaction in the parenchymal tissue of the mammary gland is mainly divided into clinical and subclinical forms (Constable et al., 2017), the latter requiring indirect means of diagnosis (Matofari et al., 2003).The sub-clinical mastitis in she camels is considered the most prevalent type (Alamin et al., 2013), and it is characterized by no visible signs of inflammation or pain in the udder, no changes in milk appearance or texture, an increase in somatic cell count (SCC) in milk samples, and a potential decrease in milk production (Archana et al., 2014; Jilo et al., 2017).
The prevalence of subclinical mastitis in dairy camels varies across different regions and is influenced by various risk factors such as the number of parities, lactation stage, and production system (Ahmad et al., 2012;Aljumaah et al., 2020).According to a review study, during the last decades, cases of mastitis in dromedary camels have been reported from many of the camel-rearing countries of Africa and Asia, such as Kenya, Somalia, Sudan, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Iraq and UAE (Abdelgadir, 2014).
Bacterial infections are the primary causes of mastitis in domestic animals (Gutiérrez et al., 2004).For this reason, many different bacteria have been isolated from the mastitic mammary glands of shecamels.The major pathogens of mastitis in she-camels are Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus agalactiae, Bacillus cereus, Actinomyces pyogenes, Escherichia coli, Micrococcus spp., and Corynebacterium bovis (Abdelgadir, 2014) The mastitis following a teat or udder injury could be attributed to environmental bacteria and the normal flora of the skin and teat canal (Wubishet et al., 2016).Overall, these findings underscore the need for comprehensive monitoring and management practices to control subclinical mastitis in lactating dairy camel herds.Bacterial pathogens play a significant role in the etiology of subclinical mastitis, emphasizing the importance of effective diagnostic and management strategies to control this condition in dairy camel herds (Geresu et al., 2021).Understanding the epidemiology and risk factors of the disease, as well as establishing methods for accurate detection of mastitis, are fundamental to improving udder health in camels (Seligsohn, 2021).

Definition and impact
Mastitis is an important disease in camels, affecting the livelihood of pastoralists (Megersa, 2010;Wubishet et al., 2016).The word mastitis stands for breast inflammation (mast=breast, it is=inflammation).It can be defined as inflammation of the mammary gland or the udder of dairy animals such as cows, camels, etc., regardless of the cause Furthermore, camel milk poses a public health concern for consumers.(Geresu et al., 2021).Subclinical mastitis in dairy camels is a significant concern due to its impact on milk production and animal health.In addition, the presence of subclinical mastitis has been associated with changes in milk immune cell composition and milk yield (Aljumaah et al., 2011;Al-Dughaym and Fadlelmula, 2015;Hadef et al., 2020).It has been estimated to affect more than 40% of the lactating she-camels (Regassa et al., 2013).

Prevalence of subclinical mastitis
The prevalence of subclinical camel mastitis has been studied in various regions where camel farming is prevalent.Research conducted in countries such as Kenya, Ethiopia, Somalia, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, and the United Arab Emirates has reported varying prevalence rates (Table 1).Studies in Garissa and Wajir districts of north-eastern Kenya found a prevalence of 46% to 61.2% for subclinical mastitis in camels.These findings are in accordance with an earlier published report from dromedary she-camels in Jordan (Hawari and Hassawi, 2010), while another study in Somalia reported a prevalence of 9.85%.A reduced occurrence of subclinical mastitis may stem from differences in the effectiveness of diagnostic methods like the CMT, seasonal fluctuations during the study period, and the absence of bush clearing that limits tick habitat.Conversely, increased infection risks in hind quarters compared to front quarters might be linked to poor hygiene conditions and heightened exposure to dung and urine.Moreover, the shorter length of hind teats and their corresponding teat canals may diminish the defense mechanisms against pathogens in the hind quarters.

Diagnostic of subclinical mastitis "field-lab." Somatic Cell Count
Regarding the emerging challenges of camel mastitis, there is a significant lack of knowledge about commonly used tests for detecting subclinical mastitis in dromedary camels (Mohamud et al., 2020).Monitoring somatic cell count (SCC) concentration in milk is the most commonly implemented indicator for detecting mastitis, especially in its subclinical form (Addis et al., 2016).However, there are notable issues with current screening techniques, such as the lack of a defined SCC threshold and the presence of cell fragments, which can lead to false enumeration of SCC (Aqib et al., 2022).
Under normal health conditions, the somatic cells in the mammary gland are primarily macrophages, comprising 66-68% of detected cells.Other somatic cells include neutrophils, mononuclear cells, and epithelial cells.As intramammary infection (IMI) progresses, the local concentration of neutrophils increases.High SCCs, indicative of mastitis, are characterized by a significant presence of leukocytes, specifically high numbers of neutrophils, which are seen in almost 90% of subclinical mastitis (SCM) cases (Pilla et al., 2012).The normal levels of somatic cells, their physiological variations, and the lack of standardized SCC thresholds in Camelidae pose difficulties in both somatic cell counting and mastitis diagnosis.However, a study provided SCC readings in camels using a cut-off Log10 SCC value of 5.67 (SCC = 472.50× 10³ cells/ml) (Aljumaah et al., 2019).
The study by Niasari-Naslaji et al., (2016) offers valuable insights into using SCC as a gold standard for detecting subclinical mastitis in dromedary camels, facilitating early diagnosis and management.It identifies SCC levels exceeding 306,000 cells/mL as reliable indicators of subclinical mastitis in these animals.This research underscores the importance of SCC thresholds in efficiently identifying and addressing mastitis in dromedary camels.

Bacterial culturing
The gold standard for identifying mastitis pathogens is culture-based techniques.These methods involve incubating a known volume of milk on culture plates for at least 18 hours at specific temperatures to promote bacterial growth.After the incubation period, colony-forming units (CFU) are counted, and an analysis of the colony phenotype is performed to identify the pathogen.Additional biochemical tests may be conducted if necessary.Most pathogens grow readily on a variety of available culture media, either aerobically (the great majority) or anaerobically (e.g., Mycoplasma sp.).Culture plates are commercially available and relatively inexpensive, and specific media can be used to promote the growth of particular microorganisms (Martins et al., 2019).When taking milk samples for culture, it is crucial to avoid contamination.Factors such as a dirty stall, a contaminated environment, poor udder preparation, or incorrect sampling procedures can lead to milk contamination, resulting in a high number of bacteria on the plate and false-positive results (Ashraf and Imran, 2018; Constable et al., 2017).
After confirming contamination, the causative agent should be identified for treatment purposes and to implement good management practices.However, bacterial culturing is expensive, time-consuming, and often impractical in pastoral settings.Therefore, investigating other indirect methods to determine the presence of intramammary infection (IMI) is essential (Seligsohn et al., 2021).

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)-based Methods
The high frequency of false negatives using culture-based methods has driven the development of molecular diagnostic tests, which offer high sensitivity and specificity and can detect growth-inhibited and nonviable bacteria.Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is known for its high sensitivity and specificity in detecting mastitis pathogens, providing accurate pathogen identification, including those that do not grow using conventional culturing techniques

Electrical conductivity test
Ali et al., (2016) reported that subclinical mastitis alters the composition of camel milk by decreasing protein, fat, and lactose content, increasing enzymatic activity, and raising electrical conductivity.They found that the electrical conductivity of mastitic milk was significantly higher than that of milk from healthy animals, attributing this to the increased somatic cell count in the milk.The increased electrical conductivity is due to the leakage of various ions and salts resulting from the heightened permeability of vascular membranes during inflammatory reactions.suggested that while electrical conductivity values sometimes correlated with a positive CMT reaction in some camels, there was no consistent correlation with CMT, total bacterial counts, or pathogenic bacteria in other camels or even the same camels on different days.These inconsistent results regarding the variation of electrical conductivity in relation to subclinical mastitis may be influenced by factors such as breed differences, feeding, stage of lactation, parity number, and season.Furthermore, during mastitis, cell membrane permeability is altered, leading to increased leakage of blood components into the udder and changing the milk composition (Sharif and Muhammad, 2008).

Power of hydrogen test
pH is considered a useful indicator for detecting mastitis in camels, as it is less time-consuming, economical, and can be performed directly in the field (Dande and Sahani, 2001).A recent study by Ndirangu et al., (2019) developed and validated a novel pH-based pen-side test for detecting subclinical mastitis (SCM) in cattle and camels.The findings indicate that this method is reliable, rapid, and cost-effective at the farm level.Accelerating the registration and commercialization of this test kit, along with implementing appropriate mastitis control measures, could significantly reduce the prevalence of mastitis in the study areas in Kenya.However, according to Hadef et al., (2017, 2020), determining the pH of camel milk is not a suitable method for detecting subclinical mastitis in camels.They argue that milk pH can be influenced by various factors such as milk yield, lactation stage, milk composition, and the nature of fodder.

On-Farm Culture 2.1. Lateral flow assay
In the last decade, lateral flow assay (LFA) has gained popularity and is widely used in various biological fields due to its simplicity, rapidity, costeffectiveness, and suitability for field deployment (Sajid et al., 2015).This technique relies on biochemical interactions, such as antigen-antibody reactions or probe DNA-target DNA hybridization (Bahadır and Sezgintürk, 2016).Lateral flow assays have been successfully developed for detecting mastitis in dairy cows, demonstrating high sensitivity and accuracy (Alhussien and Dang, 2020).
These assays target specific biomarkers like myeloperoxidase (MPO) in milk neutrophils, enabling the early detection of subclinical mastitis (SCM) and clinical mastitis in cows.Additionally, lateral flow assay systems can incorporate incubators and readers for continuous monitoring and test result generation, enhancing the efficiency of mastitis diagnosis in dairy animals (Markovsky et al., 2014).Overall, lateral flow assays offer a promising approach for the quick and reliable detection of mastitis in dairy camels, contributing to improved milk quality and animal welfare.However, no studies specifically address the use of lateral flow assays for subclinical mastitis in dairy camels.

Chip test
Microarray technology has become an essential method for evaluating the expression of thousands of genes in tissues, aiding in understanding the biological roles of encoded proteins and protein interaction systems in gene expression patterns.This technology relies on hybridizing different types of target genes loaded onto microarray chips and visualizing them after exposure to complementary DNA (cDNA) probes bound with fluorescent stains (Lin, 2009).Vidic et al., (2017) reported that more than seven mastitis-causing pathogens could be detected in a single reaction using multiplex biochips.Additionally, a study by Phiphattanaphiphop et al., (2023) designed and fabricated analytical microfluidic chips that utilize a mini-spectrometer to detect high somatic cell counts in milk.The experimental results of the microfluidic device were consistent with those of the standard Fossomatic device, achieving up to 95% precision.This suggests that the microfluidic device can detect mastitis trends in cows comparable to the Fossomatic device.These results could be used to conduct similar studies for detecting mastitis in dairy camels using the latest chip test technology.
On the other hand, microfluidic chip-based sensors offer a promising solution for continuous, noninvasive analysis of biomarkers predictive of disease.When integrated into wearable or ingestible formats, these microfluidic sensors enable mobile, animalcentric monitoring, promoting early disease detection, supporting treatment decisions, and providing insights into individual animal variations (Zhang and Hua, 2023).

Milk scan
The numerous factors influencing the composition of milk make it a very complex product, complicating its analysis.Many techniques are currently implemented for milk analysis, including spectroscopic techniques such as dielectric, Raman, MIR, NIR, and Vis-NIR spectroscopy, as well as capillary electrophoresis with UV detection.However, these methods have certain drawbacks.For instance, the infrared absorption of milk components can be affected by interferences caused by light scattering of milk fat globules (Cattaneo et al., 2009).Various physical and chemical factors of milk, such as structure, ions, water, fat, and protein, also influence the prediction of its main components in dielectric spectroscopy.
Another widely used technique is chromatography, which is extensively utilized to separate components like fat, proteins, lactose, minerals, and vitamins in milk.Liquid chromatography (LC), in particular, has become an indispensable tool in milk analysis due to its outstanding advantages of flexibility, sensitivity, and specificity (Imperiale et al., 2023).Milk scanning with different techniques should be investigated in dairy camels across different regions and breeds to determine the most important and effective diagnostic methods.(2013) reported that staphylococci, particularly in their role as a primary etiological agent for both clinical and subclinical mastitis in camels, were predominant at a rate of 41.67%.This was followed by Streptococcus spp.(21.67%),Enterobacter spp.(15.00%), and C. pyogenes (10.00%), with these findings being consistent with other studies conducted across a range of countries, including Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, the UAE, Sudan, and India (Table 2; Table 3).The prevalence of E. coli has been reported in those studies (Table 3) to range between 6.3% and 17.4%.Therefore, the prevalence of E. coli in the study of Toroitich et al., (2017) is higher than what has been reported earlier in other studies.The low rate of E. coli isolates might be partially attributed to effective udder washing and drying, post-milking teat dipping, and maintaining clean washing towels (Wanjohi et al., 2013).Coliforms can serve as indicators of poor hygiene conditions and, to a lesser extent, fecal contamination.Consequently, their prevalence can vary significantly depending on the hygiene standards in place (Geresu et al., 2021).But camel feces are typically dry and do not commonly contaminate the udder skin (Eberlein, 2007).However, their presence in milk cannot be entirely eliminated but can be significantly minimized through effective management and hygienic milking practices (Hadef et al., 2018) (2020) noted that the incidence of anti-suckling device observations was notably lower than reported in other regional studies (Fig. 1).

Tick infestation and skin lesion on the teats or udders
The study conducted by Seifu and Tafesse, (2010) indicates that a higher prevalence of subclinical mastitis is associated with tick infestation, with nearly 98.3% of quarters infected, according to the California Mastitis Test (CMT) screening used in their research.Tick infestation serves as a predisposing factor by creating a suitable environment for microbial invasion, thereby increasing bacterial pathogenicity in the udder.This suggests that controlling tick infestations may play a crucial role in reducing the incidence of mastitis in camels (Obied et al., 1996).Ticks biting the mammary gland can initiate bacterial infections, causing skin irritation and localized inflammatory responses

Stage of lactation and parity
The prevalence of subclinical mastitis varies across lactation stages, with higher rates in early lactation ( 23 et al., (2021) found it more common in she-camels with three or more parities.This finding contrasts with Suheir, (2004) who noted a prevalence of 25% during the first three calvings, rising to 43.8% at the fourth and fifth calvings, before decreasing to 16.7% in later calvings.The increase in mastitis with parity might be due to diminished immune defense, altered udder morphology, and increased trauma with each parity (Faye and Saleh, 2011). in the open air were poor in the transhumant system, Additionally, environmental conditions in the Sahara, such as sand storms, strong dust, and water shortages, aggravate hygienic conditions.(Alebie et al., 2021) reported that in camel udders, the highest prevalence of subclinical mastitis was found in the right front quarter (14.6%), followed by the left front quarter (7.3%), and then the right hind and left hind quarters (both at 7.3% and 6.3%, respectively).This distribution is thought to be influenced by the camel's anatomical structure, where the narrower basin might offer better protection to the hind quarters.Additionally, the common practice of starting milking from the right front quarter could increase the risk of microbial contamination (Alebie et al., 2021).However, in the study of Abdelgadir et al., (2005), there was no significance between the occurrence of mastitis and various risk factors such as the conformation of the udder and the previous history of mastitis.

Economic importance of camel subclinical mastitis
Understanding the economic impact of mastitis and the cost-effectiveness of management measures is crucial for decision-making in mastitis management.The term 'economic cost' has been proposed to replace 'economic losses,' encompassing all economic effectsincluding both losses and expenditures-resulting from the disease's occurrence (Ranjan et al., 2021).Subclinical mastitis, despite lacking clinical signs, significantly impacts the dairy industry.It leads to reduced milk production, deterioration in milk quality due to unfavorable properties, lower milk prices due to high somatic cell counts, loss of milk due to antibiotic treatment, increased costs of animal care, reduced productive life of animals, and annual losses due to decreased overall dairy production needed to meet national demands.(Huijps, 2009).Additionally, consumption of contaminated milk poses a greater risk to public health and becomes a source of milk-borne diseases in humans (Aqib et al., 2022).
Subclinical mastitis has been found to result in significant financial implications, as highlighted by various studies (Gramay and Ftiwi, 2018; Ali et al., 2019).Furthermore, subclinical mastitis has a greater impact on the productivity of lactating animals compared to sporadic clinical cases (Jilo et al., 2017).The reduction in milk yield is linked to mastitis, which causes damage to mammary tissue and decreases the number and function of epithelial cells, thereby leading to reduced milk production (Zhao and Lacasse, 2008).There are no published reports detailing the economic impact of subclinical mastitis in dromedary camels on a daily, annual, or per-animal basis.In Algerian pastoral settings, obtaining cooperation from camel breeders is particularly challenging (Boudalia et al., 2023).The conditions of nomadism, remote pastures, and extensive mobility without a reliable system for identification and traceability further complicate efforts in this regard (Gherissi et al., 2020).

CONCLUSION
This comprehensive overview provides valuable insights into the multifaceted aspects of subclinical mastitis in camels, encompassing prevalent bacterial pathogens and diverse risk factors.Few available pieces of literature indicate that Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus spp., Micrococcus spp., Streptococcus agalactiae, coagulasenegative staphylococci, Escherichia coli, Pasteurella haemolytica, Escherichia coli, Corynebacterium spp., and other bacteria have been implicated as causes of mastitis in camels.
Subclinical mastitis poses a significant threat to camels, which are vital animals.Proper management of lactating camels and maintaining adequate hygienic conditions in their environment are essential to minimizing the occurrence of mastitis in the studied areas.More efforts are needed to enhance overall udder health to prevent and control subclinical mastitis in camels and to ensure the well-being and productivity of camels in various agro-pastoral contexts.Further epidemiological studies on camel mastitis are needed to gather solid scientific data on disease transmission, pathogen characterization, other possible risk factors, diagnostic methods, and the impact of the disease on public health.Proper control strategies should be adopted through early diagnosis, veterinary treatment, and the avoidance of potential risk factors to ensure good quality milk from camels.Educating camel owners about the importance of hygienic milking practices would minimize the adverse effects of mastitis on the yield and quality of camel milk.Additionally, it would be beneficial to adopt and employ advanced diagnostic methods, such as advanced molecular tests and emerging technologies.The government should build additional national laboratories and research centers to provide mastitis tests for farmers, serving as valuable tools for mastitis diagnosis and management.

Fig. 2 :
Fig. 2: Shows the infested ticks (larvae, nymph and adult stages) (Karima et al., 2018).The skin lesions that appeared on the tickinfested camels were classified as mild, moderate, and
.33%) and mid-lactation (27.42%) but lower in the final stage, as reported by Alebie et al., (2021) and supported by Mengistu et al., (2010) and Regassa et al., (2013).This pattern may be influenced by traditional practices like not milking she-camels for the initial weeks post-birth, thereby reducing udder contamination (Alebie et al., 2021).The study by Hadef et al., (2018) concluded that the proportion of subclinical mastitis cases in camels did not vary significantly with different lactation stages.This finding suggests that subclinical mastitis in camels may not be strongly influenced by the specific stage of lactation, contrasting with findings in other livestock species where mastitis prevalence often varies depending on lactation phases.However, Suheir (S004) observed a different trend, with mastitis cases increasing progressively from the first stage (25%) to the last stage (45%) of lactation.This variation could be attributed to other factors that were important for predisposing mastitis in she-camels, such as the hygienic milking process (Ahmad et al., 2012).According to a study by Ahmad et al., (2012), younger camels and those in the early lactation stages are more susceptible to subclinical mastitis.Regarding the prevalence of subclinical mastitis in relation to the number of parities, Mengistu et al., (2010) and Alebie

Table 1 :
Positive prevalence of subclinical mastitis in some countries in dromedary camels.

(Mogeh et al., 2019). According to a study by Radhwane Saidi et al., (2021), there were
62 camels, all from an indigenous race, mainly the Sahrawi population, on seven farms in the Laghouat and Djelfa regions of southern Algeria.

Mohamud et al., 2020) to
the highest of 87.78% in Egypt (Asfour and Anwer, 2015) on an individual study basis.Global trends of camel mastitis are noteworthy here because prevalence studies need to be revised based on the inclusion of a larger sample size (

(Martins et al., 2019).
Different types of PCR are used to identify the genomic structures of pathogens causing mastitis: conventional PCR for DNA fragment amplification, reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR) for the detection and quantification of one pathogen, and multiplex PCR for detecting and quantifying various pathogens in the same sample.Many methods exist for detecting Staphylococcus aureus, including classical methods that take about 24 hours to yield results.In contrast, PCR is faster and more accurate, requiring about 4 hours to identify S. aureus isolates (

Izadpanah et al., 2018). According to Sheet et al., (2021),
PCR is one of the best techniques for identifying Staphylococcus aureus isolated from camel milk by detecting the nuc gene, which is specific to S. aureus.The first study in Iraq by Al-Alim et al., (2023) used PCR as the primary diagnostic molecular tool to detect Mycoplasma, particularly M. bovis, as a cause of subclinical mastitis in camels.The study concluded that Mycoplasma, especially M. bovis, is a significant causative agent of subclinical mastitis in camels, highlighting PCR as a rapid, simple, and current technique for detecting these bacteria.
Additionally, a study by Sheet

et al., (2024) employed
conventional isolation and PCR methods to isolate E. coli from camel milk and detect virulence factors such as Stx2 and Stx1.The study concluded that the isolation of E. coli harboring various virulence genes, with a higher prevalence of Stx1 than Stx2, poses a public health concern.

Abdelgadir et al., 2005; Abdelgadir, 2014; Asi et al., 2021), making
it an ideal tool for important farm management decisions.However, this method has several drawbacks: it can be slow and costly due to the chemical-reactive process, relies heavily on an expert's trained eye, and can be imprecise (

Ramirez-Morales et al., 2021).
Additionally, handling reagents on the farm poses a challenge for small farmers (

Husein et al., (2013) identified
coagulase-negative staphylococci as the leading cause of camel mastitis in their research area.Furthermore, Streptococcus agalactiae and S. aureus were reported to be the most common causes of camel mastitis in Kenya (

Hawari and Hassawi, (2010) indicated
that the most predominant bacterial isolates were Micrococcus spp., Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus spp., and Corynebacterium spp., and this is in agreement with that of Wubit

. According to Alebie et al., (2021),
Bacillus spp.were found in 19.57% of the total isolates, which is higher than the percentages reported by other studies (

Table 2 :
Coagulase positive staphylococci (CPS) species isolated causing the subclinical mastitis in she camels.

Table 3 :
Coagulase negative staphylococci CNS species and authors Gram -species isolated causing the subclinical mastitis in she camels.

Seligsohn et al., 2020).
The lack of acceptable hygiene standards for milking provides a possible explanation for the spread and circulation of Strep.agalactiae within camel herds (Risk factors for Strep.agalactiae, such as a previous history of clinical mastitis, clinical findings of induration of udder tissue, and blind teats, all indicate that Strep.agalactiaederived intramammary infections (IMI) are likely to develop into a chronic condition (